Insulin is a hormone used to regulate the amount of glucose in the blood
Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas to regulate the amount of glucose in the blood. It was discovered by Frederick Bunting and his assistant Charles Best in 1922. Bunting was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery a year later. The following years brought new achievements in this field: in 1934, zinc was used to crystallize insulin, two years later protamine insulin was obtained, in 1970 the technology for producing highly purified insulin was used for the first time, and in 1985 human insulin began to be used. to be produced.
Insulin is a protein with a molecular weight of about 6000 Da, consisting of 51 amino acids grouped into 2 chains (A and B) and connected by two sulfide bridges.
In people with diabetes, the pancreas does not produce insulin at all, or it produces insufficient amounts of it, or it cannot effectively use the insulin it produces. As a result, glucose accumulates in the bloodstream, which can lead to serious health problems such as heart disease, nerve damage, kidney problems, and an erection.
Types of diabetes :
• type 1 (insulin-dependent) is a disease associated with the immune system, in patients with autoimmunity, cells of the pancreatic islets are damaged. Insulin deficiency is manifested by hyperglycemia and glucosuria. If left untreated, it can lead to ketoacidosis and even coma. The lack of insulin must be compensated by daily intake of insulin preparations.
• Type 2 (insulin-dependent) - accounts for more than 90% of all cases, and is hereditary, although environmental factors can also influence its occurrence. A feature of this form is insulin resistance, which is associated with preserved, albeit impaired, secretion of endogenous insulin. People with this type of diabetes can maintain adequate blood glucose levels through proper nutrition, exercise, and diabetes medication.
• Gestational diabetes occurs in 2-5% of pregnant women and occurs during pregnancy due to metabolic and hormonal changes in the mother's body. This goes away after childbirth, but increases the likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes.
• Secondary diabetes is the result of other primary diseases, for example, diseases of the endocrine glands with hyperfunction - excessive secretion of growth hormone, cortisol or glucagon. It can also occur after removal of the pancreas or when using certain medications such as Encortone.
Insulin Engineering Communication
natural insulin molecules with the formation of dimers and then hexamers. After administration (subcutaneous or intramuscular), deposits of insulin are formed, from which individual molecules must dissociate in order to enter the circulatory system. Thus, the maximum concentration of insulin is 90-120 minutes. after the injection, which requires the administration of drugs about an hour before meals. Therefore, patients should follow an appropriate meal schedule. The C-terminal part of the B chain is mainly responsible for the association of insulin molecules. Amino acid modifications in this area can affect the ability of molecules to bind. This converted insulin can be administered just before meals.
Insulin preparations
by adding substances such as protamine to insulin preparations.- fish sperm proteins and zinc, possibly prolonging the absorption of this drug from subcutaneous tissue. In this way we get isophane, protamine-zinc and zinc insulins. The rate of absorption of the drug affects the rate and duration of maximum action. After that, the total duration of action of the administered drug increases. According to the duration of the action, the following groups can be distinguished:
1. Short-acting insulins., crystalline, neutral. Their feature is the low zinc content, the rapid onset of action is about 30 minutes. after admission and surgery for 7-8 hours. A separate subgroup includes two analogues of human insulin: lispro (Humalog) and aspart (NovoRapid), which act after 15 minutes. and that's why they're called high-speed. The total duration of their work is 3-5 hours.
2. Long-acting insulins :
- long-acting insulins (zinc) are obtained from the pancreas of cattle and are not used as monotherapy. They begin to act 3-4 hours after ingestion and remain in the blood for 24-36 hours. These include: Humulin U or Insulin ultralent WO-S.
- with medium-long-term effect: isophane (Humulin H, Gensulin H, Insulard NM) and biphasic. The initial action starts in 30 minutes. up to 2 hours, and the total duration is 18-24 hours. This group is the most popular in treatment, not only because of the duration of use, but also because of the possibility of combining short- and long-acting insulins.
Due to the origin of insulin, we can divide it into:
1. The animal.- made from the pancreas of cattle or pigs. After the extraction process, beef or pork insulin is obtained. Pork insulin differs from human insulin by one amino acid, and beef insulin differs by three. This affects the rate of its absorption and the onset of its action. Moreover, bovine insulin can cause allergic reactions and increase the synthesis of antiinsulin antibodies. To meet the insulin requirement of one patient per year, up to 7 kg of animal pancreas is needed. Therefore, the production of this type of insulin is very expensive.
2. Human- produced since the 1980s thanks to advances in genetic engineering methods using E. coli bacteria and baker's yeast. In the laboratory, a previously isolated human gene responsible for the production of insulin is injected into bacterial or yeast cells. In addition to their own proteins, microorganisms begin to produce human insulin, which is successfully used in the treatment of diabetes.
According to the degree of purification of the drug, they are divided into:
1. Insulins of animal origin with the usual degree of purification (without chromatography).
2. Animal insulins purified by single-stage gel-penetrating chromatography (CHO or MP - single-peak insulin) - this results in 15 times less proinsulin, which can cause an immune reaction, and complete removal of protein impurities from the drug.
3. Highly purified animal insulins (designated as WO or MC) - also using chromatographic methods, due to which the drug contains 150 times less proinsulin
4. Highly purified Human Insulin (HM) preparations
Purified insulin has low antigenic properties, which is why this process is so important in the preparation of drugs. Human insulin is being used more and more frequently and there is a tendency to completely replace it with drugs from the pancreas of animals. Then the purification process will lose its significance.
The future of insulins
The number of people using insulin therapy is increasing, and research is underway worldwide to find new forms of the drug that could be more effective, simpler, and tailored to individual patient needs, while reducing side effects and increasing tolerability. There are attempts to introduce insulins with new routes of administration, for example, buccal insulin (oralin), as well as insulin for oral administration and patches. Les joueurs de casino ne sont pas oubliés. Le bonus casino 1xBet accessible via le code promo 1xbet aujourd'hui atteint jusqu’à 1950€ répartis sur plusieurs premiers dépôts. Vous recevez également des tours gratuits sur des machines à sous populaires. Le premier dépôt offre un bonus immédiat. Les dépôts suivants continuent d’alimenter votre package. Les tours gratuits sont crédités automatiquement. C’est une opportunité idéale pour découvrir l’univers des machines à sous sans engager trop de fonds personnels tout en profitant d’un avantage certain.
Insulin is a protein with a molecular weight of about 6000 Da, consisting of 51 amino acids grouped into 2 chains (A and B) and connected by two sulfide bridges.
In people with diabetes, the pancreas does not produce insulin at all, or it produces insufficient amounts of it, or it cannot effectively use the insulin it produces. As a result, glucose accumulates in the bloodstream, which can lead to serious health problems such as heart disease, nerve damage, kidney problems, and an erection.
Types of diabetes :
• type 1 (insulin-dependent) is a disease associated with the immune system, in patients with autoimmunity, cells of the pancreatic islets are damaged. Insulin deficiency is manifested by hyperglycemia and glucosuria. If left untreated, it can lead to ketoacidosis and even coma. The lack of insulin must be compensated by daily intake of insulin preparations.
• Type 2 (insulin-dependent) - accounts for more than 90% of all cases, and is hereditary, although environmental factors can also influence its occurrence. A feature of this form is insulin resistance, which is associated with preserved, albeit impaired, secretion of endogenous insulin. People with this type of diabetes can maintain adequate blood glucose levels through proper nutrition, exercise, and diabetes medication.
• Gestational diabetes occurs in 2-5% of pregnant women and occurs during pregnancy due to metabolic and hormonal changes in the mother's body. This goes away after childbirth, but increases the likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes.
• Secondary diabetes is the result of other primary diseases, for example, diseases of the endocrine glands with hyperfunction - excessive secretion of growth hormone, cortisol or glucagon. It can also occur after removal of the pancreas or when using certain medications such as Encortone.
Insulin Engineering Communication
natural insulin molecules with the formation of dimers and then hexamers. After administration (subcutaneous or intramuscular), deposits of insulin are formed, from which individual molecules must dissociate in order to enter the circulatory system. Thus, the maximum concentration of insulin is 90-120 minutes. after the injection, which requires the administration of drugs about an hour before meals. Therefore, patients should follow an appropriate meal schedule. The C-terminal part of the B chain is mainly responsible for the association of insulin molecules. Amino acid modifications in this area can affect the ability of molecules to bind. This converted insulin can be administered just before meals.
Insulin preparations
by adding substances such as protamine to insulin preparations.- fish sperm proteins and zinc, possibly prolonging the absorption of this drug from subcutaneous tissue. In this way we get isophane, protamine-zinc and zinc insulins. The rate of absorption of the drug affects the rate and duration of maximum action. After that, the total duration of action of the administered drug increases. According to the duration of the action, the following groups can be distinguished:
1. Short-acting insulins., crystalline, neutral. Their feature is the low zinc content, the rapid onset of action is about 30 minutes. after admission and surgery for 7-8 hours. A separate subgroup includes two analogues of human insulin: lispro (Humalog) and aspart (NovoRapid), which act after 15 minutes. and that's why they're called high-speed. The total duration of their work is 3-5 hours.
2. Long-acting insulins :
- long-acting insulins (zinc) are obtained from the pancreas of cattle and are not used as monotherapy. They begin to act 3-4 hours after ingestion and remain in the blood for 24-36 hours. These include: Humulin U or Insulin ultralent WO-S.
- with medium-long-term effect: isophane (Humulin H, Gensulin H, Insulard NM) and biphasic. The initial action starts in 30 minutes. up to 2 hours, and the total duration is 18-24 hours. This group is the most popular in treatment, not only because of the duration of use, but also because of the possibility of combining short- and long-acting insulins.
Due to the origin of insulin, we can divide it into:
1. The animal.- made from the pancreas of cattle or pigs. After the extraction process, beef or pork insulin is obtained. Pork insulin differs from human insulin by one amino acid, and beef insulin differs by three. This affects the rate of its absorption and the onset of its action. Moreover, bovine insulin can cause allergic reactions and increase the synthesis of antiinsulin antibodies. To meet the insulin requirement of one patient per year, up to 7 kg of animal pancreas is needed. Therefore, the production of this type of insulin is very expensive.
2. Human- produced since the 1980s thanks to advances in genetic engineering methods using E. coli bacteria and baker's yeast. In the laboratory, a previously isolated human gene responsible for the production of insulin is injected into bacterial or yeast cells. In addition to their own proteins, microorganisms begin to produce human insulin, which is successfully used in the treatment of diabetes.
According to the degree of purification of the drug, they are divided into:
1. Insulins of animal origin with the usual degree of purification (without chromatography).
2. Animal insulins purified by single-stage gel-penetrating chromatography (CHO or MP - single-peak insulin) - this results in 15 times less proinsulin, which can cause an immune reaction, and complete removal of protein impurities from the drug.
3. Highly purified animal insulins (designated as WO or MC) - also using chromatographic methods, due to which the drug contains 150 times less proinsulin
4. Highly purified Human Insulin (HM) preparations
Purified insulin has low antigenic properties, which is why this process is so important in the preparation of drugs. Human insulin is being used more and more frequently and there is a tendency to completely replace it with drugs from the pancreas of animals. Then the purification process will lose its significance.
The future of insulins
The number of people using insulin therapy is increasing, and research is underway worldwide to find new forms of the drug that could be more effective, simpler, and tailored to individual patient needs, while reducing side effects and increasing tolerability. There are attempts to introduce insulins with new routes of administration, for example, buccal insulin (oralin), as well as insulin for oral administration and patches. Les joueurs de casino ne sont pas oubliés. Le bonus casino 1xBet accessible via le code promo 1xbet aujourd'hui atteint jusqu’à 1950€ répartis sur plusieurs premiers dépôts. Vous recevez également des tours gratuits sur des machines à sous populaires. Le premier dépôt offre un bonus immédiat. Les dépôts suivants continuent d’alimenter votre package. Les tours gratuits sont crédités automatiquement. C’est une opportunité idéale pour découvrir l’univers des machines à sous sans engager trop de fonds personnels tout en profitant d’un avantage certain.
